An instruction is a binary pattern designed inside a microprocessor to perform a specific function. The entire group of instructions, called the instruction set, determines what functions the microprocessor can perform. These instructions can be classified into the following five functional categories: data transfer (copy) operations, arithmetic operations, logical operations, branching operations, and machine-control operations.
Data Transfer (Copy) Operations
This group of instructions copy data from a location called a source to another location called a destination, without modifying the contents of the source. In technical manuals, the term data transfer is used for this copying function. However, the term transfer is misleading; it creates the impression that the contents of the
source are destroyed when, in fact, the contents are retained without any modification. The various types of data transfer (copy) are listed below together with examples of each type:
Arithmetic Operations
These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement.
Addition - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register or the contents of a memory location can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the sum is stored in the accumulator. No two other 8-bit registers can be added directly (e.g., the contents of register B cannot be added directly to the contents of the register C). The instruction DAD is an exception; it adds 16-bit data directly in register pairs.
Subtraction - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or the contents of a memory location can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator and the results stored in the accumulator. The subtraction is performed in 2's compliment, and the results if negative, are expressed in 2's complement. No two other registers can be subtracted directly.
Increment/Decrement - The 8-bit contents of a register or a memory location can be incremented or decrement by 1. Similarly, the 16-bit contents of a register pair (such as BC) can be incremented or decrement by 1. These increment and decrement operations differ from addition and subtraction in an important way; i.e., they can be performed in any one of the registers or in a memory location.
Logical Operations
These instructions perform various logical operations with the contents of the accumulator.
AND, OR Exclusive-OR - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or of a memory location can be logically ANDed, Ored, or Exclusive-ORed with the contents of the accumulator. The results are stored in the accumulator.
Rotate- Each bit in the accumulator can be shifted either left or right to the next position.
Compare- Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or a memory location can be compared for equality, greater than, or less than, with the contents of the accumulator.
Complement - The contents of the accumulator can be complemented. All 0s are replaced by 1s and all 1s are replaced by 0s.
Branching Operations
This group of instructions alters the sequence of program execution either conditionally or unconditionally.
Jump - Conditional jumps are an important aspect of the decision-making process in the programming. These instructions test for a certain conditions (e.g., Zero or Carry flag) and alter the program sequence when the condition is met. In addition, the instruction set includes an instruction called unconditional jump.
Call, Return, and Restart - These instructions change the sequence of a program either by calling a subroutine or returning from a subroutine. The conditional Call and Return instructions also can test condition flags.
Machine Control Operations
These instructions control machine functions such as Halt, Interrupt, or do nothing. The microprocessor operations related to data manipulation can be summarized in four functions:
Data Transfer (Copy) Operations
This group of instructions copy data from a location called a source to another location called a destination, without modifying the contents of the source. In technical manuals, the term data transfer is used for this copying function. However, the term transfer is misleading; it creates the impression that the contents of the
source are destroyed when, in fact, the contents are retained without any modification. The various types of data transfer (copy) are listed below together with examples of each type:
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| Table 1 |
These instructions perform arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement.
Addition - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register or the contents of a memory location can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the sum is stored in the accumulator. No two other 8-bit registers can be added directly (e.g., the contents of register B cannot be added directly to the contents of the register C). The instruction DAD is an exception; it adds 16-bit data directly in register pairs.
Subtraction - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or the contents of a memory location can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator and the results stored in the accumulator. The subtraction is performed in 2's compliment, and the results if negative, are expressed in 2's complement. No two other registers can be subtracted directly.
Increment/Decrement - The 8-bit contents of a register or a memory location can be incremented or decrement by 1. Similarly, the 16-bit contents of a register pair (such as BC) can be incremented or decrement by 1. These increment and decrement operations differ from addition and subtraction in an important way; i.e., they can be performed in any one of the registers or in a memory location.
Logical Operations
These instructions perform various logical operations with the contents of the accumulator.
AND, OR Exclusive-OR - Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or of a memory location can be logically ANDed, Ored, or Exclusive-ORed with the contents of the accumulator. The results are stored in the accumulator.
Rotate- Each bit in the accumulator can be shifted either left or right to the next position.
Compare- Any 8-bit number, or the contents of a register, or a memory location can be compared for equality, greater than, or less than, with the contents of the accumulator.
Complement - The contents of the accumulator can be complemented. All 0s are replaced by 1s and all 1s are replaced by 0s.
Branching Operations
This group of instructions alters the sequence of program execution either conditionally or unconditionally.
Jump - Conditional jumps are an important aspect of the decision-making process in the programming. These instructions test for a certain conditions (e.g., Zero or Carry flag) and alter the program sequence when the condition is met. In addition, the instruction set includes an instruction called unconditional jump.
Call, Return, and Restart - These instructions change the sequence of a program either by calling a subroutine or returning from a subroutine. The conditional Call and Return instructions also can test condition flags.
Machine Control Operations
These instructions control machine functions such as Halt, Interrupt, or do nothing. The microprocessor operations related to data manipulation can be summarized in four functions:
- 1. copying data
- 2. performing arithmetic operations
- 3. performing logical operations
- 4. testing for a given condition and alerting the program sequence
Some important aspects of the instruction set are noted below:
- 1. In data transfer, the contents of the source are not destroyed; only the contents of the destination are changed. The data copy instructions do not affect the flags.
- 2. Arithmetic and Logical operations are performed with the contents of the accumulator, and the results are stored in the accumulator (with some expectations). The flags are affected according to the results.
- 3. Any register including the memory can be used for increment and decrement.
- 4. A program sequence can be changed either conditionally or by testing for a given data condition.
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